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BIBLIOGR A PHY. — Themost useful general worksare the following : — Salomon Reinach, Epoque des alluvions et des cavenies (Musee de St Germain) ; Hoernes, Der diluviale Mensch in Europa ; Sir John Evans, Stone Implements of Great Britain, and Bronze Implements ...

ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts ranging from the worship of the real divine animal, commonly conceived as a " god-body," at one end of the scale, to respect for the bones of a slain animal or even the use of a respectful name for the living ...

ANIMISM (from animus, ur anima, mind or toul), acn.r.ln^ to thetleiuiiiiimni 1'r K.H.Tylor, the <1<H I rine of spiritual beings, including human souls; in practice, however, the term is often extended to include panlhclism or animalism, the doctrine that a gre ...

ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT (1195-1231), the most celebrated of the followers of Saint Francis of Assisi, was born at Lisbon on the i sth of August 1195. Inhisfifteenthyearheentered the Augustinian order, and subsequently joined the Franciscans in i 220. He wished ...

ANTHOZOA (i.e. "flower-animals"), the zoological name for a class of marine polyps forming " coral " (?.».). Although corals have been familiar objects since the days of antiquity, and the variety known as the precious red coral has been for a long time an art ...

ANTI-SEMITISM. In the political struggles of the concluding quarter of the igth century an important part was played by a religious, political and social agitation against the Jews, known as " Anti-Semitism." The origins of this remarkable movement already thr ...

ANTISTHENES (c. 444-365 B.C.), the founder of the Cynic school of philosophy, was born at Athens of a Thracian mother, a fact which may account for the extreme boldness of his attack on conventional thought. In his youth he studied rhetoric under Gorgias, perh ...

ARCHON (apxuv, ruler), the title of the highest magistrate in many ancient Greek states. It is only in Athens that we have any detailed knowledge of the office, and even in this one case the evidence presents problems of the first importance which are incapabl ...

ARNALDUS DE VILLA NOVA, also called ARNALOUS DE VlLLANUEVA, ARNALDUS VlLLANOVANUS Or AttiAUD DE VlLLENEUVE (c.' 1235-1313), alchemist, astrologer and physician, appears to have been of Spanish origin, and to have studied chemistry, medicine, physics, and also ...

ARNOLD, known as " ARNOLD OF BRESCIA " (d. 1155), one of the most ardent adversaries of the temporal power of the popes. He belonged to a family of importance, if not noble, and was born probably at Brescia, in Italy, towards the end of the nth century. He dis ...

ARTAXERXES, a name representing Pers. Artakkihatra, he whose empire is well-fitted " or " perfected ", Heb. Artakkshasta, Bab. Artakshatsu, Susian Irtakshaskska (and variants), Gr. '\pratipfrtt, 'ApTo{fp£i7», and in an inscription of Tralles (Dittenbergcr, Syl ...

ARTEMIS, one of the principal goddesses in Greek mythology, the counterpart of the Roman Diana. The suggested etymologies of the name (see O. Gruppe, Griechische hfythologie, ii.p. 1 267, note 2), as in the case of most of the Olympian deities, are unsatisfact ...

ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the fate and future of human beings from indications given by the positions of the stars (sun, moon and planets). The belief in a connexion between the heavenly bodies and the life of man has played an importan ...

AUGURS, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to any proposed undertaking. The augur es were originally called auspices, but, whi ...

AUSTRIA. (Ger. OsterreicK), a country of central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, W. by Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German empire (Bavaria), and N. by the German empire (Saxony and Prussia) and Russia. ...

EINHARD (c. 770-840), the friend and biographer of Charlemagne; he is also called Einhartus, Ainhardus or Heinhardus, in some of the early manuscripts. About the loth century the name was altered into Agenardus, and then to Eginhardus, or Eginhartus, but, alth ...

ELECTRICITY. This article is devoted to a general sketch of the history of the development of electrical knowledge on both the theoretical and the practical sides. The two great branches of electrical theory which concern the phenomena of electricity at rest, ...

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882), American poet and essayist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 25th of May 1 803. Seven of his ancestors were ministers of New England churches. Among them were some of those men of mark who made the backbone of the Ame ...

ENERGY (from the Gr. tvlpytia; kv, in, tpyov, work), in physical science, a term which may be defined as accumulated mechanical work, which, however, may be only partially available for use. A bent spring possesses energy, for it is capable of doing work in re ...

EPHEBI (Gr. trl, and <J/3ij, i.e. " those who have reached puberty "), a name specially given, in Athens and other Greek towns, to a class" of young men from eighteen to twenty years of age, who formed a sort of college under state control. On the completion o ...

EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. This book of the New Testament, the most general and least occasional and polemic of all the Pauline epistles, a large section of which seems almost like the literary elaboration of a theological topic, may best be described as a sol ...

EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance), a condition of equal balance between opposite or counteracting forces. By the " sense of equilibrium " is meant the sense, or sensations, by which we have a feeling of security in standing, walki ...

ERASMUS, DESIOERIUS (1466-1536), Dutch scholar and theologian, was born on the night of the 27/28th of October, probably in 1466; but his statements about his age are conflicting, and in view of his own uncertainty (Ep. x. 29: 466) and the weakness of his memo ...

ERSCH, JOHANN SAMUEL (1766-1828), the founder of German bibliography, was born at Grossglogau, in Silesia, on the 23rd of June 1766. In 1785 he entered the university of Halle with the view of studying theology; but soon his whole attention became engrossed by ...

ESCHATOLOGY (Gr. SO-XCITOS, last, and Xcryos, science; the " doctrine of last things "), a theological term derived from the New Testament phrases " the last day " (tt> TJ ecrxarj) rintpq., John vi. 39), " the last times " (eir' to~x.6.TUv T&V \povuv, i Peter ...

ESKIMO, ESKIMOS or ESQUIMAUX (a corruption of the Abnaki Indian Eskimantsic or the Ojibway Ashkimeq, both terms meaning " those who eat raw flesh": they call themselves " Innuit," " the people "), a North American Indian people, inhabiting the arctic coast of ...

ETHNOLOGY and ETHNOGRAPHY (from the Gr. Wvos, race, and XOTOJ, science, or ypa.ijxu', to write), sciences which in their narrowest sense deal respectively with man as a racial unit (mankind), i.e. his development through the family and tribal stages into natio ...

EUBOEA (pronounced Ewia in the modern language), EURIPOS, or NEGROPONT, the largest island of the Grecian archipelago. It is separated from the mainland of Greece by the Euboic Sea. In general outline it is long and narrow; it is about oo m. long, and varies i ...

EUROPE, the smallest of those principal divisions of the land-surface of the globe which are usually distinguished by the conventional name of continents. i. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS It has justly become a commonplace of geography to describe Europe as a mere ...

EUSEBIUS (Gr. Eiw«/3io$, from twre/Sijs, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius), a name borne by a large number of bishops and others in the early ages of the Christian Church. Of these the most important are separately noticed below. No less than 25 saints of this n ...

EUTYCHES (c. 380-*;. 456), a presbyter and archimandrite at Constantinople, first came into notice in A.D. 431 at the council of Ephesus, where, as a zealous adherent of Cyril (q.v.) of Alexandria, he vehemently opposed the doctrine of the Nestorians (q.v.) . ...

MSS. in some of the skelae, or those in the libraries of Laura and Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi and Laura have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement to v ...

also examined the efficiency and current producing power of influence machines. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— In addition to S. P. Thompson's valuable IKIJHT on influence machines (to which this article is much indebted) and other references given, sec J. Clerk Maxwell, Trea ...

SUNNITES, literally, " those of the path," sunna, i.e. followers of the Prophet's directions, the name of one of the two main divisions of Islam, the other being the Shi'ites (q.v.). The Sunnites, who accept the orthodox tradition (Sunna) as well as the Koran ...

SYNOD OF.) The grand duke also contemplated granting a form of constitution, but his Teutonic rigidity was not popular and many of his reforms were ahead of the times and not appreciated by the people. At the death of his brother, Joseph II., in 1790, Leopold ...

TARDE, GABRIEL (1843-1004), French sociologist, was born at Sarlat (Dordogne) in 1843. Entering the legal profession, he was for some time a juge d'instruction in his native town, becoming afterwards head of the statistical department of the ministry of justic ...

TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tr/Xe, far, and ypafaiv, to write), the name given to an apparatus for the transmission of intelligence to a distance. Etymologically the word implies that the messages are written, but its earliest use was of appliances that depended on visual ...

TEXAS, a south central state of the United States of America, extending from lat. 26° 51' N. to lat. 36° 39' N. and from long. 93° 30' W. to long. 1 06° 30' W. A western projection is bounded N. by New Mexico, but the main portion of the state is bounded N. by ...

THAYER, ABBOTT HANDERSON (1849- ), American artist, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the i2th of August 1849. He was a pupil of J. L. Ger&me at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, and became a member of the Society of American Artists (1879), of the National ...

THEATRE (dearpov, " a place for seeing," from BeaffOai), a building specially devised for dramatic representations. The drama arose from the choric dances in honour of Dionysus, which were held in a circular dancing-place (opx^orpo, Lat. orchestra) in his prec ...