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Contemporaneously with the early developments of the Christian churches just described, another line of treatment was being evolved in central Syria, which would seem to have been quite independent of the others, though at first sight it bears considerable res ...

APOSTLE (aw6(rTO\os, one sent forth on a mission, an envoy, as in Is. xviii. 2; Symmachus, a.iro<jTt\\tiv cbrocrToXow; Aquila, irpetr/Seuras), a technical term used in the New Testament and in Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ. ...

APOSTOLIC FATHERS, a term used to distinguish those early Christian writers who were believed to have been the personal associates of the original Apostles. While the title " Fathers " was given from at least the beginning of the 4th century to church writers ...

EUROPE, the smallest of those principal divisions of the land-surface of the globe which are usually distinguished by the conventional name of continents. i. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS It has justly become a commonplace of geography to describe Europe as a mere ...

... sunna, i.e. followers of the Prophet's directions, the name of one of the two main divisions of Islam, the other being the Shi'ites (q.v.). The Sunnites, who accept the orthodox tradition (Sunna) as well as the Koran as a source of theologico-juristic doctrine ...

... s with God or the gods. The word is Greek (Geos, God; Xo-yos, theory). But doctrine counted for less in Greek or Roman religion than in Christianity, and forms of worship for more. In the oldest usage #60X6701 were those who dealt in myths, like Hesiod and lik ...

... , the short title usually given to the great federal republic which had its origin in the revolt of the British colonies in North America, when, in the Declaration of Independence, they described themselves as " The Thirteen United States of America." Official ...

... t coast of Africa south of the equator. With the exception of the enclave of Kabinda (q.v.) the province lies wholly south of the river Congo. Bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, it extends along the coast from the southern bank of the Congo (6° S., 12° E ...

ANTHOZOA (i.e. "flower-animals"), the zoological name for a class of marine polyps forming " coral " (?.».). Although corals have been familiar objects since the days of antiquity, and the variety known as the precious red coral has been for a long time an art ...

ANTI-SEMITISM. In the political struggles of the concluding quarter of the igth century an important part was played by a religious, political and social agitation against the Jews, known as " Anti-Semitism." The origins of this remarkable movement already thr ...

APOLOGETICS, in theology, the systematic statement of the grounds which Christians allege for belief in (at least) a supernatural revelation and a divine redemption (cf. e.g. Heb. i. 1-3). The majority of apologists in the past have further believed in an infa ...

... cal ToXirou. Ka0oXun) Si<5aa/caXia), a collection of ecclesiastical regulations in eight books, the last of which concludes with the eighty-five Canons of the Holy Apostles. By their title the Constitutions profess to have been drawn up by the apostles, and to ...

AQUINAS, THOMAS [THOMAS OF AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 12271274), scholastic philosopher, known as Doctor Angelicas, Doctor Uniiiersalis, was of noble descent, and nearly allied to several of th? royal houses of Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at Roccasecca, the ...

ARABESQUE, a word meaning simply " Arabian," but technically used for a certain form of decorative design in flowing lines intertwined; hence comes the more metaphorical use of this word, whether in nature or in morals, indicating a fantastic or complicated in ...

ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. Aragon), a captaincygeneral, and formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which separate it from France, on the E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by Valencia, and W. by the two Castiles and Navarre. Pop. (1900 ...

ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the fate and future of human beings from indications given by the positions of the stars (sun, moon and planets). The belief in a connexion between the heavenly bodies and the life of man has played an importan ...

... to classify or arrange). The subject matter of astronomical science, considered in its widest range, comprehends all the matter of the universe which lies outside the limit of the earth's atmosphere. The seeming anomaly of classifying as a single 'branch of sc ...

... outhern, the Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic Coast Line, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by the Atlantic Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways, by an electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and b ...

AUSTRIA. (Ger. OsterreicK), a country of central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic Sea and Italy, W. by Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German empire (Bavaria), and N. by the German empire (Saxony and Prussia) and Russia. ...

ELISHA (a Hebrew name meaning " God is deliverance "), in the Bible, the disciple and successor of Elijah, was the son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah in the valley of the Jordan. He was symbolically elected to the prophetic office by Elijah some time during the re ...

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882), American poet and essayist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 25th of May 1 803. Seven of his ancestors were ministers of New England churches. Among them were some of those men of mark who made the backbone of the Ame ...

ENERGY (from the Gr. tvlpytia; kv, in, tpyov, work), in physical science, a term which may be defined as accumulated mechanical work, which, however, may be only partially available for use. A bent spring possesses energy, for it is capable of doing work in re ...

... New Testament, the most general and least occasional and polemic of all the Pauline epistles, a large section of which seems almost like the literary elaboration of a theological topic, may best be described as a solemn oration, addressed to absent hearers, an ...

... d Sea.1 The application of the name has varied considerably at different times. In the Homeric poems the Aethiopcs arc the furthest of mankind both eastward and westward; the gods go to their banquets and probably the Sun sets in their country. With the growth ...

EUSEBIUS (Gr. Eiw«/3io$, from twre/Sijs, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius), a name borne by a large number of bishops and others in the early ages of the Christian Church. Of these the most important are separately noticed below. No less than 25 saints of this n ...

TEXAS, a south central state of the United States of America, extending from lat. 26° 51' N. to lat. 36° 39' N. and from long. 93° 30' W. to long. 1 06° 30' W. A western projection is bounded N. by New Mexico, but the main portion of the state is bounded N. by ...

THEATRE (dearpov, " a place for seeing," from BeaffOai), a building specially devised for dramatic representations. The drama arose from the choric dances in honour of Dionysus, which were held in a circular dancing-place (opx^orpo, Lat. orchestra) in his prec ...

THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA (c. 350-428), early Christian theologian, the most eminent representative of the so-called school of Antioch, was born at Antioch about the middle of the 4th century and was a friend of John Chrysostom; in rhetoric the celebrated Libaniu ...

THEODORET, bishop of Cyrrhus, an important writer in the domains of exegesis, dogmatic theology, church history and ascetic theology, was born in Antioch, Syria, about 386. At an early age he entered the cloister; and in 423 he became bishop of Cyrrhus, a smal ...

THOMAS OF MARGA, a Nestorian bishop and author of an important monastic history in Syriac, who flourished in the 9th century A.D. He was bom early in the century, probably of Persian parents, in the region of Salakh to the north-east of Mosul. As a young man h ...

... ovelist and social reformer, was born on the 9th of September (August 28) 1828, in the home of his fathers — Yasnaya Polyana, near Toula — a large country house (not the present one) built in a severely formal style, with Doric pillars and architraves, standin ...

TRAVANCORE, a state of southern India, in political relation with Madras. Area, 7091 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 2,952,157, showing an increase of 15% in the preceding decade. The state stands sixteenth among the native states of India in area and third ...

VENICE (Venezia), a city and seaport of Italy, occupying one of the most remarkable sites in the world. At the head of the Adriatic, between the mountains and the sea, lies that part of the Lombard plain known as the Veneto. The whole of this plain has been fo ...

ERNESTI. JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1802), German classical scholar, was born at Arnstadt, Thuringia, and studied under his uncle, J. A. Ernest i, at the university of Leipzig. On the 5th of June, 1782, he was made supplementary professor of philosophy at ...

In England, as in France, the influence of the Classic Revival was first seen in connexion with tombs and church work, though not nearly to the same extent as in France, where throughout the country the work of the Italian sculptor is to be found not only in c ...

The classical revival does not seem to have taken root in Germany much before the middle of the i6th century, some forty to fifty years later than in France, from which country it is said to have been introduced, and in some of the early work there is a great ...

In the styles hitherto described a chronological order has been followed, as far as possible, in order to show the gradual development of the style; that course is adopted here to a certain extent, when dealing with the Renaissance, though the introduction of ...

... HALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of the German empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of the two duchies Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen and Anhalt-Bernburg, and comprising all the various Anhalt territories which were sundered apart in 1603. The c ...

ANIMAL HEAT. Under this heading is discussed the physiology of the temperature of the animal body. The higher animals have within their bodies certain sources of heat, and also some mechanism by means of which both the production and loss of heat can be regula ...

ANIMAL WORSHIP, an ill-defined term, covering facts ranging from the worship of the real divine animal, commonly conceived as a " god-body," at one end of the scale, to respect for the bones of a slain animal or even the use of a respectful name for the living ...