{"article":{"id":"britannica-11-language","work_id":"britannica-11","title":"Language","normalized_title":"language","slug":"language","aliases":[],"subtitle":"Internet Archive OCR import","body_text":"LANGUAGE, vol. xiv. p. 895.) See E. Repetti, Dizionario geografico fisico storico della Toscana (6 yols., Florence, 1834-1846). See also G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (2 vols., London, 1883). On medieval and Renaissance architecture and art there are innumerable works. Among those on architecture may be mentioned the great work of H. von Geymuller and A. Widmann, Die Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana. (T. As.) History. — Etruria (q.v.) was finally annexed to Rome in 351 B.C., and constituted the seventh of the eleven regions into which Italy was, for administrative purposes, divided by Augustus. Under Constantine it was united into one province with Umbria, an arrangement which subsisted until at least 400, as the Notitia speaks of a \" consularis Tusciae et Umbriae.\" In Ammianus Marcellinus there is implied a distinction between \" Tuscia suburbicaria \" and \" Tuscia annonaria,\" the latter being that portion which lies to the north of the Arno. After the fall of the Western empire Tuscia, with other provinces of Italy, came successively under the sway of Herulians, Ostrogoths, and Greek and Lombard dukes. Under the last-named, \" Tuscia Langobardorum,\" comprising the districts of Viterbo, Corneto and Bolsena, was distinguished from \" Tuscia Regni,\" which lay more to the north. Under Charlemagne the name of Tuscia or Toscana became restricted to the latter only. One of the earliest of the Frankish marquises was Boniface, either first or second of that name, who about 828 fought with success against the Saracens in Africa. Adalbert I., who succeeded him, in 878 espoused the cause of Carloman as against his brother Louis III. of France, and suffered excommunication and imprisonment in consequence. Adalbert II. (the Rich), who married the ambitious Bertha, daughter of Lothair, king of Lorraine, took a prominent part in the politics of his day. A subsequent marquis, Hugo (the Great), became also duke of Spoleto in 989. The male line of marquises ended with Boniface II. (or III.), who was murdered in 1052. His widow, Beatrice, in 1055 married Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, and governed the country till her death in 1076, when she was succeeded by Matilda (q.v.), her only child by her first husband. Matilda died in 1114 without issue, bequeathing all her extensive possessions to the Church. The consequent struggle between the popes, who claimed the inheritance, and the emperors, who maintained that the countess had no right to dispose of imperial fiefs, enabled the principal cities of Tuscany gradually to assert their independence. The most important of these Tuscan republics were Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, Pistoia and Lucca. The Return of the Medici. — After the surrender of Florence to the Imperialists in August 1530 the Medici power was reestablished by the emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII., although certain outward forms of republicanism were preserved, and Alessandro de' Medici was made duke of Florence, the dignity to be hereditary in the family. In the reign of Cosimo III. Siena was annexed (1559); the title of grand duke of Tuscany wa.s conferred on that ruler in 1567 by Pope Pius V. and recognized in the person of Francis I. by the emperor Maximilian II. in 1576. Under a series of degenerate Medici the history of Tuscany is certainly not a splendid record, and few events of importance occurred save court scandals. The people became more and more impoverished and degraded, a new and shoddy nobility was created and granted wide privileges, and art and letters declined. Giovan Gastone was the last Medicean grand duke; being childless, it was agreed by the treaty of Vienna that at his death Tuscany should be given to Francis, duke of Lorraine, husband of the archduchess Maria Theresa, afterwards empress. In 1737 Giovan Gastone died,1 and Francis II., after taking possession of the grand duchy, appointed a regency under the prince of Craon and departed for Austria never to return. Tuscany was governed by a series of foreign regents and was a prey to adventurers from Lorraine and elsewhere; although the administration was not wholly inefficient and introduced some useful reforms, the people were ground by taxes to pay for the apanage of Francis in Vienna and for Austrian wars, and reduced to a state of great poverty. Francis, who had been elected emperor in 1745, died in 1765, and was succeeded on the throne of the grand duchy by his younger son, Leopold I. Leopold resided in Tuscany and proved one of the most capable and remarkable of the reforming princes of the i8th century. He substituted Tuscans for foreigners in government fhe offices, introduced a system of free trade in food- Reforms or stuffs (at the suggestion of the Sienese Sallustio Leopold II. Bandini), promoted agriculture, and reclaimed wide areas of marshland to intensive cultivation. He reorganized taxation on a basis of equality for all citizens, thereby abolishing one of the most vexatious privileges of the nobility, reformed the administration of justice and local government, suppressed torture and capital punishment, and substituted a citizen militia for the standing army. His reforms in church matters made a great stir at the time, for he curbed the power of the clergy, suppressed some religious houses, reduced the mortmain and rejected papal interference. With the aid of Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia, he even attempted to remove abuses, reform church discipline and purify religious worship; but Ricci's action was condemned by Rome. Ricci was forced to resign, and the whole movement came to nothing. (See PISTOIA,","body_html":"

LANGUAGE, vol. xiv. p. 895.) See E. Repetti, Dizionario geografico fisico storico della Toscana (6 yols., Florence, 1834-1846). See also G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (2 vols., London, 1883). On medieval and Renaissance architecture and art there are innumerable works. Among those on architecture may be mentioned the great work of H. von Geymuller and A. Widmann, Die Architektur der Renaissance in Toscana. (T. As.) History. — Etruria (q.v.) was finally annexed to Rome in 351 B.C., and constituted the seventh of the eleven regions into which Italy was, for administrative purposes, divided by Augustus. Under Constantine it was united into one province with Umbria, an arrangement which subsisted until at least 400, as the Notitia speaks of a " consularis Tusciae et Umbriae." In Ammianus Marcellinus there is implied a distinction between " Tuscia suburbicaria " and " Tuscia annonaria," the latter being that portion which lies to the north of the Arno. After the fall of the Western empire Tuscia, with other provinces of Italy, came successively under the sway of Herulians, Ostrogoths, and Greek and Lombard dukes.

\n

Under the last-named, " Tuscia Langobardorum," comprising the districts of Viterbo, Corneto and Bolsena, was distinguished from " Tuscia Regni," which lay more to the north. Under Charlemagne the name of Tuscia or Toscana became restricted to the latter only. One of the earliest of the Frankish marquises was Boniface, either first or second of that name, who about 828 fought with success against the Saracens in Africa. Adalbert I., who succeeded him, in 878 espoused the cause of Carloman as against his brother Louis III. of France, and suffered excommunication and imprisonment in consequence. Adalbert II. (the Rich), who married the ambitious Bertha, daughter of Lothair, king of Lorraine, took a prominent part in the politics of his day. A subsequent marquis, Hugo (the Great), became also duke of Spoleto in 989. The male line of marquises ended with Boniface II. (or III.), who was murdered in 1052. His widow, Beatrice, in 1055 married Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, and governed the country till her death in 1076, when she was succeeded by Matilda (q.v.), her only child by her first husband. Matilda died in 1114 without issue, bequeathing all her extensive possessions to the Church.

\n

The consequent struggle between the popes, who claimed the inheritance, and the emperors, who maintained that the countess had no right to dispose of imperial fiefs, enabled the principal cities of Tuscany gradually to assert their independence. The most important of these Tuscan republics were Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, Pistoia and Lucca. The Return of the Medici. — After the surrender of Florence to the Imperialists in August 1530 the Medici power was reestablished by the emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII., although certain outward forms of republicanism were preserved, and Alessandro de' Medici was made duke of Florence, the dignity to be hereditary in the family. In the reign of Cosimo III. Siena was annexed (1559); the title of grand duke of Tuscany wa.s conferred on that ruler in 1567 by Pope Pius V. and recognized in the person of Francis I. by the emperor Maximilian II. in 1576. Under a series of degenerate Medici the history of Tuscany is certainly not a splendid record, and few events of importance occurred save court scandals. The people became more and more impoverished and degraded, a new and shoddy nobility was created and granted wide privileges, and art and letters declined.

\n

Giovan Gastone was the last Medicean grand duke; being childless, it was agreed by the treaty of Vienna that at his death Tuscany should be given to Francis, duke of Lorraine, husband of the archduchess Maria Theresa, afterwards empress. In 1737 Giovan Gastone died,1 and Francis II., after taking possession of the grand duchy, appointed a regency under the prince of Craon and departed for Austria never to return. Tuscany was governed by a series of foreign regents and was a prey to adventurers from Lorraine and elsewhere; although the administration was not wholly inefficient and introduced some useful reforms, the people were ground by taxes to pay for the apanage of Francis in Vienna and for Austrian wars, and reduced to a state of great poverty. Francis, who had been elected emperor in 1745, died in 1765, and was succeeded on the throne of the grand duchy by his younger son, Leopold I. Leopold resided in Tuscany and proved one of the most capable and remarkable of the reforming princes of the i8th century. He substituted Tuscans for foreigners in government fhe offices, introduced a system of free trade in food- Reforms or stuffs (at the suggestion of the Sienese Sallustio Leopold II.

\n

Bandini), promoted agriculture, and reclaimed wide areas of marshland to intensive cultivation. He reorganized taxation on a basis of equality for all citizens, thereby abolishing one of the most vexatious privileges of the nobility, reformed the administration of justice and local government, suppressed torture and capital punishment, and substituted a citizen militia for the standing army. His reforms in church matters made a great stir at the time, for he curbed the power of the clergy, suppressed some religious houses, reduced the mortmain and rejected papal interference. With the aid of Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia, he even attempted to remove abuses, reform church discipline and purify religious worship; but Ricci's action was condemned by Rome. Ricci was forced to resign, and the whole movement came to nothing. (See PISTOIA,

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