Athos

ATHOS (Gr. 'A-yioi-'Opos; Turk. Aineros; Itol. Monte Santo), the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which extend, like the prongs of a trident, southwards from the coast of Macedonia (European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea. Before the iqth century the name Athos was usually confined to the terminal peak of the promontory, which was itself known by its ancient name, Acte. The peak rises like a pyramid, with a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft., and can be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus ore distinct traces of the canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece in 480 B.C. The peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and derives a peculiar interest from its unique group of monastic communities with their medieval customs and institutions, their treasures of Byzantine art and rich collections of documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with a breadth varying from 4 to 7 m.; its whole area belongs to the various monasteries.

It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and Throcian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus few traces remain; some inscriptions discovered on the sites were published by W. M. Leake (Travels in N. Greece, 1835, iii. 140) and Kinch. The legends of the monks attribute the first religious settlements to the age of Constantino (174-337), but the hermitages are first mentioned in historical documents of the 9th century. It is conjectured that the mountain was at an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers were increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions (726842). The " coenobian " rule to which many of the monasteries still adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the great monastery of Laura, in 069. Under a constitution approved by the emperor Constantino Monomachos in 1045, women and female animals were excluded from the holy mountain. In 1060 the community was withdrawn from the authority of the patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic was practically constituted.

The taking of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks; this reminded them of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them to appeal for protection to Pope Innocent III., who gave them a favourable reply. Under the Palaeologi (1260-1453) they recovered their prosperity, and were enriched by gifts from various sources. In the uth century the peninsula became the chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the monasteries were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the mystical Hesychasts. Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks after the capture of Salonica ( 1 430), their privileges were respected by successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government, which is represented by a resident kaimakam, and the community is allowed to maintain a small police force. Under the present constitution, which dates from 1783, the general affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted to an assembly (<r(fo£if) of twenty members, one from each monastery; a committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled cfnttalar (iruJT&Tai), forms the executive.

The president of the committee (A rp&roi) is also the president of the assembly, which holds its sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of government since the loth century. The twenty monasteries, which all belong to the order of St Basil, are: Laura (4 AoOpa), founded in 963; Vatope'di (BarorUtoy), said to have been founded by the emperor Theodosius; Rossikon CPwoffuM), the Russian monastery of St Pantelelmon; Chiliandari (XtXiorrdpuw1: supposed to be derived from xtXtot ivoptt orx>Xta Xforr&pta), founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195); Iveron (4 fti^i TUP '\fUipuv), founded by Iberians, or Georgians; Esphigmenu (TOV 'Kofrynivov: the name is derived from the confined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush (KovrXovjiofaj); Pandocratoros (TOV Ilavroxpdropot) ; Philotheu (4>iXo6«ou); Caracallu (TOV KapaxaXXoi'); St Paul (TOV aylov FlauXov); St Denis (rov ayiov Aiomriou) ; St Gregory (TOW ayiov r prjyopiov) ; Sim6petra (-ijiortTpa); Xeropotimu (rov Zripoworanov); St Xenophon (TOV ayiov Eewtx^wirof) ; Dochiariu (Aox«ap«ioti); Constamonltu (KwvoraponTOv); Zogripbu (TOV Ziaypaipov); and Stavronikftu (TOV -Taupowxirou, the last built, founded in 1545).

The " coenobian " monasteries («wo/3io), each under the rule of an abbot (iiyovntvm). are subjected to severe discipline; the brethren are clothed alike, take their meals (usually limited to bread and vegetables) in the refectory, and possess no private property. In the " idiorrhythmic " monasteries (iStoppvO pa) , which are governed by two or three annually elected wardens (iiriTporot), a less stringent rule prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement the fare of the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the several monasteries are twelve sketae (anffmi) or monastic settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more ascetic mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several farms (/itroxia), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining habitations UtXXZa) and hermitages (ojnafriipia). The monasteries, with the exception of Rossik6n (St Pantelelmon) and the Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliandari and Zographu, are occupied exclusively by Greek monks. The large stele of St Andrew and some others belong to the Russians; there are also Rumanian and Georgian sketae.

The great monastery of Rossik6n, which is said to number about 3000 inmates, has been under a Russian abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the principal centres of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the Levant. The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony with the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with ample means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of adding to their possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments are resisted by the Greek monks, whose wealth, however, was much diminished by the secularization of their estates in Rumania(i864). The population of the holy mountain numbers from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks (jcaXiyytpoi), the remainder being lay brothers (nxrpucot). The monasteries, which are all fortified, generally consist of large quadrangles enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present a wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious services, occupy themselves with husbandry, fishing and various handicrafts; the standard of intellectual culture is not high.

A large academy, founded by the monks of Vatopedi in 1749, for a time attracted students from all parts of the East, but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series of documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and princes, sigilla of the patriarchs, typica, irades and other documents, the study of which will throw an important light on the political and ecclesiastical history and social life of the ATHY— ATKINSON East from the middle of the loth century. Up to comparatively recent times a priceless collection of classical manuscripts was preserved in the libraries; many of them were destroyed during the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829) by the Turks, who employed the parchments for the manufacture of cartridges; others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, who, it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed to Moscow and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed by fire in 1891, and that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little hope of any important discovery of classical manuscripts.

The codices remaining in the libraries are for the most part theological and ecclesiastical works. Of the Greek manuscripts, numbering about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued by Professor Spyridion Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not include the